Decentralized bilevel optimization has received increasing attention recently due to its foundational role in many emerging multi-agent learning paradigms (e.g., multi-agent meta-learning and multi-agent reinforcement learning) over peer-to-peer edge networks. However, to work with the limited computation and communication capabilities of edge networks, a major challenge in developing decentralized bilevel optimization techniques is to lower sample and communication complexities. This motivates us to develop a new decentralized bilevel optimization called DIAMOND (decentralized single-timescale stochastic approximation with momentum and gradient-tracking). The contributions of this paper are as follows: i) our DIAMOND algorithm adopts a single-loop structure rather than following the natural double-loop structure of bilevel optimization, which offers low computation and implementation complexity; ii) compared to existing approaches, the DIAMOND algorithm does not require any full gradient evaluations, which further reduces both sample and computational complexities; iii) through a careful integration of momentum information and gradient tracking techniques, we show that the DIAMOND algorithm enjoys $\mathcal{O}(\epsilon^{-3/2})$ in sample and communication complexities for achieving an $\epsilon$-stationary solution, both of which are independent of the dataset sizes and significantly outperform existing works. Extensive experiments also verify our theoretical findings.

我们考虑在马尔可夫决策过程中的强化学习（RL），其中代理人反复交互与由受控马尔可夫进程建模的环境进行交互。在每次步骤$ $ $时，它赢得了奖励，并招收了由$ M $成本组成的成本矢量。我们设计学习算法，最大限度地提高$ T $时间步长的时间范围内获得的累积奖励，同时确保$ M $成本支出的平均值由代理指定的阈值界限为$ C ^ {UB} _I ，i = 1,2，\ ldots，m $。关于累积成本支出的审议从现有文献中离开，因为代理商此外需要以在线方式平衡成本费用，同时执行通常遇到的RL任务中的勘探开发权衡。为了测量满足平均成本约束的加强学习算法的性能，我们定义了由其奖励后悔组成的$ M + 1 $维度遗憾的载体，而M $费用遗憾。奖励后悔在累计奖励中衡量次级最优性，而成本遗憾的奖励奖励奖励是其$ I $ -Th累计成本费用与预期成本支出之间的差异，而预期的成本支出$ TC ^ {UB} _i $。我们证明，通过高概率，UCRL-CMDP的遗憾矢量是高度限制的（S \ SQRT {AT ^ {1.5} \ log（t）\右）$，其中$ s $状态的数量，$ a $是行动的数量，而$ t $是时间范围。我们进一步展示了如何减少预期奖金的所需子集的遗憾，以牺牲奖励遗憾和剩余成本的牺牲品为代价。据我们所知，我们的是唯一考虑在平均成本限制下的非焦化RL的工作，并且可以根据代理人对其成本遗憾的要求进行〜\ excph {调整后悔向量}的算法。

我们研究了受限的强化学习问题，其中代理的目的是最大程度地提高预期的累积奖励，从而受到对实用程序函数的预期总价值的约束。与现有的基于模型的方法或无模型方法伴随着“模拟器”，我们旨在开发第一个无模型的无模拟算法，即使在大规模系统中，也能够实现sublinear遗憾和透明度的约束侵犯。为此，我们考虑具有线性函数近似的情节约束决策过程，其中过渡动力学和奖励函数可以表示为某些已知功能映射的线性函数。我们表明$ \ tilde {\ mathcal {o}}（\ sqrt {d^3h^3t}）$遗憾和$ \ tilde {\ tillcal {\ mathcal {o}}（\ sqrt {d^3h^3ht}）$约束$约束$约束可以实现违规范围，其中$ d $是功能映射的尺寸，$ h $是情节的长度，而$ t $是总数的总数。我们的界限是在没有明确估计未知过渡模型或需要模拟器的情况下达到的，并且仅通过特征映射的维度依赖于状态空间。因此，即使国家的数量进入无穷大，我们的界限也会存在。我们的主要结果是通过标准LSVI-UCB算法的新型适应来实现的。特别是，我们首先将原始二次优化引入LSVI-UCB算法中，以在遗憾和违反约束之间取得平衡。更重要的是，我们使用软马克斯政策取代了LSVI-UCB中的状态行动功能的标准贪婪选择。事实证明，这对于通过其近似平滑度的权衡来确定受约束案例的统一浓度是关键。我们还表明，一个人可以达到均匀的约束违规行为，同时仍然保持相同的订单相对于$ t $。

Three main points: 1. Data Science (DS) will be increasingly important to heliophysics; 2. Methods of heliophysics science discovery will continually evolve, requiring the use of learning technologies [e.g., machine learning (ML)] that are applied rigorously and that are capable of supporting discovery; and 3. To grow with the pace of data, technology, and workforce changes, heliophysics requires a new approach to the representation of knowledge.

Image classification with small datasets has been an active research area in the recent past. However, as research in this scope is still in its infancy, two key ingredients are missing for ensuring reliable and truthful progress: a systematic and extensive overview of the state of the art, and a common benchmark to allow for objective comparisons between published methods. This article addresses both issues. First, we systematically organize and connect past studies to consolidate a community that is currently fragmented and scattered. Second, we propose a common benchmark that allows for an objective comparison of approaches. It consists of five datasets spanning various domains (e.g., natural images, medical imagery, satellite data) and data types (RGB, grayscale, multispectral). We use this benchmark to re-evaluate the standard cross-entropy baseline and ten existing methods published between 2017 and 2021 at renowned venues. Surprisingly, we find that thorough hyper-parameter tuning on held-out validation data results in a highly competitive baseline and highlights a stunted growth of performance over the years. Indeed, only a single specialized method dating back to 2019 clearly wins our benchmark and outperforms the baseline classifier.

Dataset scaling, also known as normalization, is an essential preprocessing step in a machine learning pipeline. It is aimed at adjusting attributes scales in a way that they all vary within the same range. This transformation is known to improve the performance of classification models, but there are several scaling techniques to choose from, and this choice is not generally done carefully. In this paper, we execute a broad experiment comparing the impact of 5 scaling techniques on the performances of 20 classification algorithms among monolithic and ensemble models, applying them to 82 publicly available datasets with varying imbalance ratios. Results show that the choice of scaling technique matters for classification performance, and the performance difference between the best and the worst scaling technique is relevant and statistically significant in most cases. They also indicate that choosing an inadequate technique can be more detrimental to classification performance than not scaling the data at all. We also show how the performance variation of an ensemble model, considering different scaling techniques, tends to be dictated by that of its base model. Finally, we discuss the relationship between a model's sensitivity to the choice of scaling technique and its performance and provide insights into its applicability on different model deployment scenarios. Full results and source code for the experiments in this paper are available in a GitHub repository.\footnote{https://github.com/amorimlb/scaling\_matters}

The devastation caused by the coronavirus pandemic makes it imperative to design automated techniques for a fast and accurate detection. We propose a novel non-invasive tool, using deep learning and imaging, for delineating COVID-19 infection in lungs. The Ensembling Attention-based Multi-scaled Convolution network (EAMC), employing Leave-One-Patient-Out (LOPO) training, exhibits high sensitivity and precision in outlining infected regions along with assessment of severity. The Attention module combines contextual with local information, at multiple scales, for accurate segmentation. Ensemble learning integrates heterogeneity of decision through different base classifiers. The superiority of EAMC, even with severe class imbalance, is established through comparison with existing state-of-the-art learning models over four publicly-available COVID-19 datasets. The results are suggestive of the relevance of deep learning in providing assistive intelligence to medical practitioners, when they are overburdened with patients as in pandemics. Its clinical significance lies in its unprecedented scope in providing low-cost decision-making for patients lacking specialized healthcare at remote locations.

Objective: Imbalances of the electrolyte concentration levels in the body can lead to catastrophic consequences, but accurate and accessible measurements could improve patient outcomes. While blood tests provide accurate measurements, they are invasive and the laboratory analysis can be slow or inaccessible. In contrast, an electrocardiogram (ECG) is a widely adopted tool which is quick and simple to acquire. However, the problem of estimating continuous electrolyte concentrations directly from ECGs is not well-studied. We therefore investigate if regression methods can be used for accurate ECG-based prediction of electrolyte concentrations. Methods: We explore the use of deep neural networks (DNNs) for this task. We analyze the regression performance across four electrolytes, utilizing a novel dataset containing over 290000 ECGs. For improved understanding, we also study the full spectrum from continuous predictions to binary classification of extreme concentration levels. To enhance clinical usefulness, we finally extend to a probabilistic regression approach and evaluate different uncertainty estimates. Results: We find that the performance varies significantly between different electrolytes, which is clinically justified in the interplay of electrolytes and their manifestation in the ECG. We also compare the regression accuracy with that of traditional machine learning models, demonstrating superior performance of DNNs. Conclusion: Discretization can lead to good classification performance, but does not help solve the original problem of predicting continuous concentration levels. While probabilistic regression demonstrates potential practical usefulness, the uncertainty estimates are not particularly well-calibrated. Significance: Our study is a first step towards accurate and reliable ECG-based prediction of electrolyte concentration levels.

Candidate axiom scoring is the task of assessing the acceptability of a candidate axiom against the evidence provided by known facts or data. The ability to score candidate axioms reliably is required for automated schema or ontology induction, but it can also be valuable for ontology and/or knowledge graph validation. Accurate axiom scoring heuristics are often computationally expensive, which is an issue if you wish to use them in iterative search techniques like level-wise generate-and-test or evolutionary algorithms, which require scoring a large number of candidate axioms. We address the problem of developing a predictive model as a substitute for reasoning that predicts the possibility score of candidate class axioms and is quick enough to be employed in such situations. We use a semantic similarity measure taken from an ontology's subsumption structure for this purpose. We show that the approach provided in this work can accurately learn the possibility scores of candidate OWL class axioms and that it can do so for a variety of OWL class axioms.

The rapid growth of machine translation (MT) systems has necessitated comprehensive studies to meta-evaluate evaluation metrics being used, which enables a better selection of metrics that best reflect MT quality. Unfortunately, most of the research focuses on high-resource languages, mainly English, the observations for which may not always apply to other languages. Indian languages, having over a billion speakers, are linguistically different from English, and to date, there has not been a systematic study of evaluating MT systems from English into Indian languages. In this paper, we fill this gap by creating an MQM dataset consisting of 7000 fine-grained annotations, spanning 5 Indian languages and 7 MT systems, and use it to establish correlations between annotator scores and scores obtained using existing automatic metrics. Our results show that pre-trained metrics, such as COMET, have the highest correlations with annotator scores. Additionally, we find that the metrics do not adequately capture fluency-based errors in Indian languages, and there is a need to develop metrics focused on Indian languages. We hope that our dataset and analysis will help promote further research in this area.